{"id":2823,"date":"2026-06-13T13:00:19","date_gmt":"2026-06-13T09:30:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/?p=2823"},"modified":"2026-06-13T13:07:31","modified_gmt":"2026-06-13T09:37:31","slug":"%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a5%d9%85%d8%a8%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b7%d9%88%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b1%d9%88%d9%85%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%8a%d8%a9","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wiki\/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a5%d9%85%d8%a8%d8%b1%d8%a7%d8%b7%d9%88%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b1%d9%88%d9%85%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%8a%d8%a9\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u062a\u064f\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0639\u0631\u0641\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0627\u0645\u062a\u062f\u062a \u0633\u0644\u0637\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0628\u0631 \u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u0629 \u0642\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u062a \u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0645\u0633\u0629 \u0642\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629[1]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0646\u0634\u0623\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0636\u0641\u0627\u0641 \u0646\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0628\u0631 \u0644\u062a\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0638\u0645\u0649 \u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0628 \u062e\u0645\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0645\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0630\u0631\u0648\u0629 \u0642\u0648\u062a\u0647\u0627[2]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0634\u0645\u0644\u062a \u0623\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0648\u0633\u0637 \u0628\u0623\u0643\u0645\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0645\u062a\u062f\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0641\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0631\u0643\u062a \u0625\u0631\u062b\u0627\u064b \u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u062a\u0623\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0647 \u0628\u0627\u0642\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641 \u062c\u0648\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u0629. \u0623\u0633\u0633 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u062e\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0632\u064a\u062c \u0645\u0639\u0642\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0648\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0646\u062f\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u062c\u0639\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0646\u0645\u0648\u0630\u062c\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062a\u0641\u0631\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a. \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0643\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062c\u0631\u062f \u0642\u0648\u0629 \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0644 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0634\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0623\u062b\u0631\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062d\u0643\u0645\u062a\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0631\u0643 \u0625\u0631\u062b\u0647\u0627 \u0622\u062b\u0627\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0645\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u0645\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u0629.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n
\n
COSMALORE \u00b7 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n27 \u0642.\u0645 – 476 \u0645 (\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629)[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n330 \u0645 – 1453 \u0645[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 (\u062d\u062a\u0649 330 \u0645)\u060c \u062b\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0633\u0637\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629 (\u062d\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0625\u0633\u0637\u0646\u0628\u0648\u0644)[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0644\u063a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645<\/td>\n\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0643\u0632\u064a\u0629[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633<\/td>\n\u0623\u0648\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0627\u0646 (\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633)[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0623\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u062a\u0648\u0633\u0639 \u0625\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0645\u064a<\/td>\n\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u062a\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0627\u0646 (98-117 \u0645)[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0639\u062f\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0631\u0648\u0629<\/td>\n\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 70-80 \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0645\u0629[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u062d\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 5 \u0645\u0644\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u0645\u00b2 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0642\u0635\u0649 \u062a\u0648\u0633\u0639[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0641\u064a\u0627\u0644\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 (Legiones Romanae)[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0629 (\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0627\u064b)<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629 (\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f\u064a)[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0639\u062f\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/td>\n\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0648\u062d \u0628\u064a\u0646 20-50 \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0629 \u062d\u0633\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0629[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0648\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a<\/td>\n\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0643\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u064d \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0629[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062b \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u064a<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0644\u063a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u062b\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u062b\u0631\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u063a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0623\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a<\/h2>\n

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\n \u0623\u0646\u0627 \u0648\u062c\u062f\u062a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0648\u0628\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0643\u0645 \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u062e\u0627\u0645.
\n \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f\u064a<\/strong>\n<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

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\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0635\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0647\u0628\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n
\"Roman
Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png \u2014 CC BY-SA 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
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Roman Empire (orthographic projection).svg \u2014 CC BY-SA 3.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/p>\n

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\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0641\u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u064f\u0646\u0638\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0641\u064a\u0627\u0644\u0642 (Legiones)\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0644 \u0641\u064a\u0644\u0642 \u064a\u0636\u0645 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 5,000 \u062c\u0646\u062f\u064a[63]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u062a\u062f\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0635\u0627\u0631\u0645 \u0648\u0641\u0642 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0646\u0636\u0628\u0627\u0637 \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a \u0635\u0627\u0631\u0645 \u062c\u062f\u0627\u064b[64]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u064a\u062e\u0636\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u062a\u062f\u0631\u064a\u0628 \u064a\u0648\u0645\u064a \u0634\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u064a\u062a\u0636\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0631\u064a\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u062d\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u064a\u0644\u0629[65]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0643\u062a\u064a\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u062c\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0639\u0635\u0631\u0647\u0627. \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0648\u0627 \u062a\u0634\u0643\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0647\u0646\u062f\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0642\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u062a\u0634\u0643\u064a\u0644 “\u0627\u0644\u0641\u064a\u0644\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u063a\u0644\u0642” \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0641\u0631 \u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0641\u0636\u0644 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0630\u0648\u0641\u0629[66]<\/a><\/sup>. \u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0623\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0648\u0622\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u062c\u0646\u064a\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0628\u0627\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0635\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0630\u0648\u0641\u0629[67]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u062e\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0635\u0627\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0628 \u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0635\u0646\u0629[68]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u0636\u062d \u0644\u0644\u0631\u062a\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0633\u0644\u0633\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0631\u0645\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0628\u0627\u0637 \u064a\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0641\u0627\u0621\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062e\u0628\u0631\u0629[69]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u062d\u062f\u062f \u0644\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0627\u062a\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u0627\u0641\u0622\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0634\u0627\u062a \u0644\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0631\u062d\u064a\u0646. \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0628\u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0634\u0628\u0643\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0635\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f \u0644\u0636\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629[70]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0627\u062a \u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0648\u062a\u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645. \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0631\u0627\u0639\u0629 \u0643\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0631\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629[71]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0644 \u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0632\u0631\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u063a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0645\u0635\u0631 \u0648\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0635\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0632\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0643\u0645\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0636\u062e\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0648\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0635\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649[72]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0635\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0635\u0648\u0635 \u0645\u0644\u0642\u0628 “\u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627”\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0632\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a \u062b\u0644\u062b \u0627\u062d\u062a\u064a\u0627\u062c\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0645\u062d[73]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0637\u0648\u0631\u062a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0634\u0628\u0643\u0629 \u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639\u0629 \u062c\u062f\u0627\u064b \u062a\u0645\u062a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u064a\u0646. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0637\u0631\u0642 \u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0631\u0641\u062a \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 “\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631”\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0637\u0631\u0642 \u0628\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0628\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0648\u0633\u0637 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u064a\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0646\u062f\u064a[74]<\/a><\/sup>. \u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u062a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\u062e\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0628\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0645\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0646\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0635\u0649[75]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0627\u064b \u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0632\u062f\u0647\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u064a[76]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u062f\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b. \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u062d\u062a\u0648\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0643\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062d\u062f\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0636\u0629[77]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0627\u0632\u062f\u0647\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f[78]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0645\u0639 \u0645\u0631\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u062a\u060c \u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u060c \u0628\u062f\u0623\u062a \u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0631 \u062a\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0628\u0633\u0628\u0628 \u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0645\u062d\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0636\u0629[79]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u0645\u0635\u062f\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0647\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0644\u062f\u062e\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0639\u0642\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u064a\u062a\u0636\u0645\u0646 \u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0636 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u062d \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643[80]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0645\u0648\u0638\u0641\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u064a\u064f\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 “\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628” (publicani) \u0645\u0633\u0624\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0639\u0646 \u062c\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0627\u062a[81]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u062a\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0644\u062a\u0645\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629[82]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0642\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0642\u0633\u0645\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0636\u062d\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u064a\u0646\u0642\u0633\u0645 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u062f\u0629 \u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0629: \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u064a\u0646 (\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0634\u064a\u064a\u0646)\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0637\u0649 (\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631)\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0648\u0646)\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u064a\u062f[83]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u062a\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u062a\u0648\u0641\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u064a\u062f[84]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0627\u0635\u0645\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629 \u0628\u062a\u062e\u0637\u064a\u0637 \u062d\u0636\u0631\u064a \u0645\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645. \u0636\u0645\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0645\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0630\u0631\u0648\u0629 \u0627\u0632\u062f\u0647\u0627\u0631\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u062c\u0639\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0643\u0628\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645[85]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u0632\u0648\u062f\u0629 \u0628\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0646\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 (\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u0648\u0627\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u062a) \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u062c\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0633\u0627\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0628\u0639\u064a\u062f\u0629[86]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0635\u0631\u0641 \u0635\u062d\u064a \u0645\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b[87]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0643\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0633 \u064a\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0647 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u062f\u062b\u0629[88]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0645\u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0642\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0635\u0627\u0631\u0645\u0629. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0631\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0631\u0629 (paterfamilias) \u064a\u062a\u0645\u062a\u0639 \u0628\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0648\u062c\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0637\u0641\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u064a\u062f[89]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0648\u062c\u0627\u062a \u062a\u062a\u0645\u062a\u0639 \u0628\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0645\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f\u0629\u060c \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0645\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643\u0627\u062a \u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629[90]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0637\u0641\u0627\u0644 \u064a\u062e\u0636\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629\u060c \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0642\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u062a\u062d\u0645\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u0647\u0645[91]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0633\u0642\u0648\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u0628\u062f\u0623\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u062a\u062f\u0631\u064a\u062c\u064a \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f\u064a. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0645\u062a\u0639\u062f\u062f\u0629 \u0633\u0627\u0647\u0645\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631\u060c \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0632\u0627\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629[92]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0647\u0646\u0627\u0643 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0634\u0627\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0646\u0627\u062c\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0636\u062e\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0639 \u062a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0629[93]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0634\u0647\u062f\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0629 \u0647\u062c\u0631\u0629 \u062c\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0648\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629) \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629[94]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0645\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f\u064a\u060c \u0628\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0636\u0639 \u064a\u0633\u0648\u0621 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631. \u062d\u0627\u0635\u0631\u062a \u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u064a\u0632\u064a\u062c\u0648\u062b \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0627\u0645 410 \u0645 \u0628\u0642\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0623\u0644\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0643 \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0645\u0648\u0627 \u0628\u0646\u0647\u0628\u0647\u0627[95]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u062d\u062f\u062b\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0631\u0648\u0639\u0627\u064b \u0647\u0632 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629[96]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0627\u062a\u0628\u0639 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u062d\u0645\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0645\u062a\u0643\u0631\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0633\u0641\u0631\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0646 \u062a\u0642\u0633\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0645\u0627\u0644\u0643 \u0628\u0631\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629[97]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 476 \u0645\u060c \u062e\u0644\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0631\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0628\u0631\u064a \u0623\u0648\u062f\u0648\u0627\u0643\u0631 \u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a \u0631\u0648\u0645\u0648\u0644\u0648\u0633 \u0623\u0648\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0648\u0644\u0648\u0633[98]<\/a><\/sup>. \u064a\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629[99]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0646\u0647\u0627\u0631\u062a\u060c \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642\u064a\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629) \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f \u0644\u0642\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649[100]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n

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\u062d\u0642\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u062c\u0648\u0633\u062a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644 (527-565 \u0645) \u0646\u0647\u0636\u0629 \u0641\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629. \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u062d\u0645\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0646\u0627\u062c\u062d\u0629 \u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0623\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0625\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627[104]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u062c\u0648\u0633\u062a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0628\u062c\u0645\u0639 \u0648\u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0634\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u0639\u0631\u0641\u062a \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 “\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u062c\u0648\u0633\u062a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u0646” (Justinian Code)\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u062f\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645[105]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0623\u0634\u0631\u0641 \u062c\u0648\u0633\u062a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0622\u064a\u0627 \u0635\u0648\u0641\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0647\u064a\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0647\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0632\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e[106]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1453 \u0645\u060c \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u062a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0633\u0637\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0648\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0646\u0647\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0627\u064b[107]<\/a><\/sup>. \u0637\u0648\u0627\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0644\u0629\u060c \u062d\u0627\u0641\u0638\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0632\u0646\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0642\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0645\u0633\u0627\u0647\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u0629[108]<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

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COSMALORE \u00b7 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2824,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[156,157,159,165,1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2823","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-al-tarikh","category-al-hadaraat-al-qadeema","category-al-hadara-al-romaniya","category-al-duwal-wal-imbaraturiyat","category-1"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2823","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2823"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2823\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2825,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2823\/revisions\/2825"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2824"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2823"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2823"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2823"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}