{"id":2536,"date":"2026-06-03T05:37:00","date_gmt":"2026-06-03T02:07:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/?p=2536"},"modified":"2026-06-03T13:57:28","modified_gmt":"2026-06-03T10:27:28","slug":"%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ab%d9%88%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%81%d8%b1%d9%86%d8%b3%d9%8a%d8%a9","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wiki\/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ab%d9%88%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%81%d8%b1%d9%86%d8%b3%d9%8a%d8%a9\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629"},"content":{"rendered":"
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\u0645\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629<\/h2>\n

\n\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 (R\u00e9volution fran\u00e7aise<\/span>) \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u062f\u0627\u062b \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644\u064a\u0651\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u061b \u0625\u0630 \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0627\u062d\u062a \u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629\u064c \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0639\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0627\u0645\u062a\u062f\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1787 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1799\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0644\u063a\u062a \u0630\u0631\u0648\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0641\u064a \u0635\u064a\u0641 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1789.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0641\u064a \u063a\u0636\u0648\u0646 \u0639\u0642\u062f\u064d \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u060c \u0627\u0646\u0647\u0627\u0631 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u064c \u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u064c\u0651 \u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u064c \u0639\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064c \u062a\u062c\u0630\u0651\u0631\u062a \u062c\u0630\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0642\u0631\u0648\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062a\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u064c \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0642\u0627\u0645\u062a \u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627\u060c \u062b\u0645 \u0635\u0639\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0631\u062d\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0636\u0649 \u0642\u0627\u0626\u062f\u064c \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u064c\u0651 \u0628\u0627\u0631\u0639\u064c \u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644 \u0645\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0626 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0634\u0631\u0648\u0639 \u062a\u0648\u0633\u0639\u064a\u0651 \u0627\u0643\u062a\u0633\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0623\u0633\u0631\u0647\u0627.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u0627\u0646\u0628\u062b\u0642\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u062a\u0634\u0627\u0628\u0643 \u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0641\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629\u061b \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0647\u0643\u062a \u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064f \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u060c \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u0638\u0644\u0651 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u064c \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u064c\u0651 \u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u064c\u0651 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u064d \u064a\u064f\u062c\u062b\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0635\u062f\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u060c \u0641\u064a \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0634\u0639\u0644\u062a \u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631\u064f \u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0642\u0648\u0644\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062c\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u0639\u062f\u0629.
\n[2]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0641\u064a \u0644\u062d\u0638\u0629 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0642\u0629\u060c \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0636\u0628\u064f \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u064f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0643\u0645 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0636\u0629\u064d \u0645\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0632\u0644\u0632\u0644\u062a \u0639\u0631\u0648\u0634 \u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627 \u0648\u0623\u0634\u0639\u0644\u062a \u0645\u062e\u064a\u0651\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0648\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0628\u064e\u062f\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0629.\n<\/p>\n

\n\u064a\u064f\u062c\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u0648\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062d\u0637\u0629\u064b \u0641\u0627\u0635\u0644\u0629\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0633\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0634\u0631\u064a\u060c \u0625\u0630 \u0646\u0642\u0644\u062a \u0645\u0641\u0647\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0631\u0651\u0633\u062a \u0645\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0626 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062e\u0627\u0621 \u0634\u0639\u0627\u0631\u0627\u064b \u062e\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0637\u0644\u0642\u062a \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629\u064b \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0645\u062a\u062f\u062a \u0622\u062b\u0627\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f\u0647.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n <\/colgroup>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0645\u0651\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a<\/strong><\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 (R\u00e9volution fran\u00e7aise<\/span>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0646\u064a\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n\n 1787 \u2013 1799 \u0645
\n [1]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f<\/strong><\/td>\n\u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 (\u062b\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0648\u0642\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0646\u062d\u0648 26 \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1789\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0627\u0643\u062a\u0638\u0627\u0638\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627
\n [3]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0648\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0627\u0642\u062a\u062d\u0627\u0645 \u0633\u062c\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644 \u0641\u064a 14 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1789
\n [3]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u0644\u0648\u0639<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 (\u062d\u0643\u0645 1774\u20131792\u060c \u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0641\u064a 21 \u064a\u0646\u0627\u064a\u0631 1793)
\n [4]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0627\u0631<\/strong><\/td>\nLibert\u00e9, \u00c9galit\u00e9, Fraternit\u00e9<\/em> \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062e\u0627\u0621<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0623\u0628\u0631\u0632 \u0648\u062b\u064a\u0642\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646 (26 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633 1789)
\n [5]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0636\u062d\u0627\u064a\u0627 \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628<\/strong><\/td>\n\n 16,594 \u0646\u064f\u0641\u0650\u0651\u0630 \u0628\u062d\u0642\u0647\u0645 \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0646\u062d\u0648 25,000 \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u064a\u062f\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627
\n [6]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 (1789\u20131792) \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 (1792\u20131794) \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631 (1795\u20131799) \u2014 \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628 18 \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0631 \u0648\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 (1799)
\n [3]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n\n \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628 18 \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0631 (9 \u0646\u0648\u0641\u0645\u0628\u0631 1799)\u060c \u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0631\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629
\n [7]<\/a><\/sup>\n <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0638\u0651\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0646<\/strong><\/td>\n\u062c\u0627\u0646 \u062c\u0627\u0643 \u0631\u0648\u0633\u0648\u060c \u0641\u0648\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0631\u060c \u0645\u0648\u0646\u062a\u0633\u0643\u064a\u0648\u060c \u062c\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u0648\u0643<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u2014 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0639\u0634\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629<\/h2>\n

1. \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645 (Ancien R\u00e9gime) \u0648\u0628\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u062a\u0646\u0648\u0621 \u062a\u062d\u062a \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u064d \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u064a\u0650\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u064a\u064f\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u0640”\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645”\u061b \u0625\u0630 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0637\u0628\u0642\u062a\u0627 \u0631\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u062a\u0634\u0643\u0651\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u064b \u0646\u062d\u0648 2% \u0641\u062d\u0633\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0625\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0644\u063a \u062d\u064a\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0646\u062d\u0648 26 \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0645\u0629\u060c \u0641\u064a \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u0648\u0651\u0646\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0641\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u062a\u0645\u062b\u0651\u0644 \u0646\u062d\u0648 98% \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u062a\u062a\u062d\u0645\u0651\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0627\u064b.
\n[8]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0648\u062b \u064a\u0642\u0648\u0644: “\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u064a\u0644 \u064a\u064f\u062d\u0627\u0631\u0628\u060c \u0648\u0631\u062c\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u064a\u0635\u0644\u0651\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u064a\u062f\u0641\u0639”.
\n[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u062a\u0645\u062a\u0651\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0648\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0645\u062a\u064a\u0627\u0632\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639\u0629\u064d\u061b \u0641\u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0639\u0641\u064e\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628\u060c \u0648\u064a\u062d\u062a\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0635\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0639\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629\u060c \u0628\u064a\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u0638\u0644\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0648\u0646 \u0631\u0627\u0632\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u062a\u062d\u062a \u0648\u0637\u0623\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0631\u0633\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u062f\u062f\u0629\u060c \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0627 \u062d\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636.
\n[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

2. \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u062f\u0629<\/h3>\n

\n\u0628\u0644\u063a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0634\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0645\u061b \u0625\u0630 \u0623\u0646\u0641\u0642\u062a \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u062b\u0631\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0637\u0627\u0626\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0645\u0642\u062f\u0651\u0645\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u062f\u0639\u0645\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 (1775\u20131783) \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0643\u0644\u0651\u0641\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0628 1.3 \u0645\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0644\u064a\u0641\u0631.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 (1774\u20131792) \u0628\u0627\u062a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0641\u0642\u0627\u062a \u062a\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0648\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u064a\u0631\u0627\u062f\u0627\u062a \u0628\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0642 \u0634\u0627\u0633\u0639\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u062a\u0642\u062a\u0631\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633.
\n[3]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0641\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0642\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0634\u0627\u0631\u0644 \u0623\u0644\u0643\u0633\u0646\u062f\u0631 \u062f\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0644\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1786 \u0625\u0635\u0644\u0627\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064a \u0648\u0625\u062e\u0636\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0644\u0644\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0628\u0629\u060c \u0631\u0641\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0644\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0644\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0635\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0641\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0641\u062f\u0641\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064f \u0646\u062d\u0648 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062f\u0639\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u062b\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0646\u0639\u0642\u062f\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0627\u064a\u0648 1789 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0646\u0630 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1614.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

3. \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0630\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0627\u0639\u0629<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u0627\u0642\u0645\u062a \u0633\u0646\u0648\u0627\u062a\u064c \u0645\u062a\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0634\u064f\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0635\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0631\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0648\u062c\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0641\u0627\u0641 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0642\u064a\u0639 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u0646\u0627\u0629\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646\u061b \u0641\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0641\u0639\u062a \u0623\u0633\u0639\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0628\u0632 \u0627\u0631\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0639\u0627\u064b \u062c\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0627\u064b \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0628\u0627\u062a\u062a \u0642\u0648\u062a\u064e \u064a\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u062a\u0645\u062a\u0635\u0651 \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u062f\u062e\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645\u064a\u060c \u0648\u062a\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0648\u0639\u064f \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0646\u0629\u064d \u0641\u0631\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629\u064d \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u064f\u0630\u0643\u064a \u062c\u0630\u0648\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0636\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a.
\n[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

4. \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631\u064a \u0648\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0643\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0644\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u064a\u0644\u062a\u0647\u0627\u061b \u0628\u0644 \u0623\u0633\u0647\u0645 \u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a \u0625\u0633\u0647\u0627\u0645\u0627\u064b \u062c\u0648\u0647\u0631\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0648\u0639\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0646\u0642\u062f\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629. \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0637\u0631\u062d \u062c\u0627\u0646 \u062c\u0627\u0643 \u0631\u0648\u0633\u0648 (1712\u20131778) \u0646\u0638\u0631\u064a\u062a\u0647 \u0641\u064a “\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a” \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0642\u0648\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0635\u062f\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0646 \u0644\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0633\u0642\u0627\u0637 \u0645\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u0647\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u062f \u0645\u0639\u0647.
\n[10]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0623\u0631\u0633\u0649 \u0645\u0648\u0646\u062a\u0633\u0643\u064a\u0648 (1689\u20131755) \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0647 “\u0631\u0648\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0646” (1748) \u0645\u0628\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u060c \u0628\u064a\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u0647\u0627\u062c\u0645 \u0641\u0648\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0631 (1694\u20131778) \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a \u0628\u0623\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u062f\u0629.
\n[2]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627\u060c \u0643\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0638 \u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0636\u064e \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0642\u064f\u0631\u0626\u062a \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0647\u0624\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0641\u0629 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u0642\u064f\u0631\u0626\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0623\u064a \u0628\u0644\u062f\u064d \u0622\u062e\u0631.
\n[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0627\u0634\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0627\u0646\u062f\u0644\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629<\/h2>\n

1. \u0627\u0646\u0639\u0642\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0645\u0623\u0632\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0648\u064a\u062a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0645\u0627\u064a\u0648 1789\u060c \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062f\u0639\u0649 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b (\u00c9tats-G\u00e9n\u00e9raux) \u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646\u0630 175 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0628\u062d\u062b\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0646 \u0645\u0648\u0627\u0641\u0642\u0629\u064d \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0636\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u0625\u0646\u0642\u0627\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646\u0629.
\n[12]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0646\u062f\u0644\u0639 \u0641\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0622\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0648\u064a\u062a: \u0623\u0635\u0631\u0651\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u062a\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 (\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621) \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0648\u064a\u062a \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 (\u0643\u0644\u064c\u0651 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u062f\u0629)\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0636\u0645\u0646 \u0644\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u062d\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u064a\u062a\u0648 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0629. \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u060c \u0637\u0627\u0644\u0628\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0648\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u062f\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0628\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u064f\u0631\u062c\u0651\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0641\u0629 \u0644\u0635\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u062f\u062f\u0627\u064b.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

2. \u062a\u0623\u0633\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0642\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0639\u0628<\/h3>\n

\n\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0635\u0631\u0651\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u062a\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0631\u0623\u064a\u0647\u0645\u0627\u060c \u0627\u0646\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0645\u0645\u062b\u0644\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0648 1789 \u0648\u0623\u0639\u0644\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0623\u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647\u0645 “\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629”\u060c \u0645\u0624\u0643\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0647\u0645 \u064a\u0645\u062b\u0644\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a \u0628\u0623\u0633\u0631\u0647 \u0644\u0627 \u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629\u064b \u0628\u0639\u064a\u0646\u0647\u0627.
\n[13]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u062c\u062f\u0648\u0627 \u0642\u0627\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u063a\u0644\u0642\u0629\u064b \u0628\u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a \u0641\u064a 20 \u064a\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0648 1789\u060c \u062a\u0648\u062c\u0651\u0647\u0648\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0627\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0639\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0642\u0633\u0645\u0648\u0627 \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u064f\u0631\u0641 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0640”\u0642\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0639\u0628” (Serment du Jeu de Paume)\u060c \u0628\u0623\u0644\u0651\u0627 \u064a\u062a\u0641\u0631\u0651\u0642\u0648\u0627 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u064a\u0645\u0646\u062d\u0648\u0627 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

3. \u0637\u0631\u062f \u0646\u064a\u0643\u0631 \u0648\u062a\u0623\u062c\u064a\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0633\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a 11 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1789\u060c \u0623\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0625\u0642\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u0632\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a \u062c\u0627\u0643 \u0646\u064a\u0643\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0639\u064f\u062f\u0651\u062a \u0625\u064a\u0630\u0627\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0646\u064a\u0651\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u062a\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0629. \u0647\u0628\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0633\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0644\u061b \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0634\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0631\u0651\u0636 \u0643\u0627\u0645\u064a \u062f\u064a\u0645\u0648\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u0627\u0626\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u064a\u064f\u062d\u062b\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0627\u062d\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u0648\u062f \u062c\u0627\u0647\u0632\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0625\u0634\u0639\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u0631\u0649.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0642\u062a\u062d\u0627\u0645 \u0633\u062c\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644 \u2014 14 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1789<\/h2>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0641\u062c\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1789\u060c \u0634\u0643\u0651\u0644\u062a \u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u064c \u063a\u0627\u0636\u0628\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0642\u0648\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629\u064b \u062a\u0648\u062c\u0651\u0647\u062a \u0646\u062d\u0648 \u0633\u062c\u0646 \u0642\u0644\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u062a\u0649 \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u064a\u0651\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629. \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0644\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u062e\u0627\u0632\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0630\u062e\u064a\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0633\u0644\u0645\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0644\u0639\u0629 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0645\u0648\u0627\u062c\u0647\u0629\u064d \u0648\u062c\u064a\u0632\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0642\u064f\u062a\u0644 \u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u064f\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0632 \u062f\u064a \u0628\u0631\u0646\u0627\u0631\u062f \u0648\u0642\u064f\u0637\u0639 \u0631\u0623\u0633\u0647 \u0648\u0633\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0627\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0648\u0627\u0631\u0639.
\n[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u0645\u0627 \u0625\u0646 \u0628\u0644\u063a \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0628\u0631\u064f \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0642\u0635\u0631\u0647 \u0628\u0641\u0631\u0633\u0627\u064a \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0633\u0623\u0644: “\u0623\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629\u064c \u0647\u0630\u0647\u061f” \u0641\u0631\u062f\u0651 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0647: “\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0627 \u0645\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064a\u060c \u0628\u0644 \u0647\u064a \u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629.” \u0648\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u060c 14 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648\u060c \u0639\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0627\u064b \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645.\n<\/p>\n

\n\u0623\u0639\u0642\u0628 \u0633\u0642\u0648\u0637\u064f \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0646\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u064a\u0641\u064a \u0639\u064f\u0631\u0641\u062a \u0628\u0640”\u0627\u0644\u062e\u0648\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0638\u064a\u0645” (Grande Peur)\u061b \u0625\u0630 \u0647\u0627\u062c\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0642\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0648\u0623\u062d\u0631\u0642\u0648\u0627 \u0633\u062c\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u062f\u0641\u0639 \u0622\u0644\u0627\u0641\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0644\u064a\u0645\u0648\u0651\u0644\u0648\u0627 \u0644\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0627 \u0639\u064f\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u0640”\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0636\u0627\u062f\u0629”.
\n[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 (1789\u20131792)<\/h2>\n

1. \u0625\u0644\u063a\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633 1789\u060c \u0623\u0635\u062f\u0631\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0632\u0645\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0630\u0631\u064a\u0629\u061b \u0641\u0623\u0644\u063a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0634\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629\u064b \u0636\u0631\u064a\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u062e\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0639\u0644\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0635\u0648\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0638\u0627\u0626\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629.
\n[10]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0625\u064a\u0630\u0627\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645 \u0648\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639\u064d \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f.\n<\/p>\n

2. \u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633 1789\u060c \u0646\u0634\u0631\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062b\u064a\u0642\u0629\u064b \u062a\u0623\u0633\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0643\u0628\u0631\u0649 \u0647\u064a “\u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646”\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0646\u0635\u0651\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0635\u062f\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0636\u0637\u0647\u0627\u062f \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u064c \u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u064f\u0645\u0633\u0651.
\n[5]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0642\u062f \u0635\u0627\u063a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646\u064e \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0632 \u062f\u064a \u0644\u0627\u0641\u0627\u064a\u064a\u062a \u0628\u0648\u0635\u0641\u0647 \u0648\u062b\u064a\u0642\u0629\u064b \u0641\u0648\u0642 \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0630\u0627\u062a \u0623\u062b\u0631\u064d \u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0645\u0644\u0632\u0645\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0651\u0632\u062a \u0639\u0646 \u0646\u0638\u064a\u0631\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u062c\u0644\u064a\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a \u0628\u0644 \u0634\u0645\u0644\u062a \u0643\u0644 \u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646.
\n[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

3. \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631 1791<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1791\u060c \u0635\u0627\u062f\u0642 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u064f\u0643\u0631\u064e\u0647\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064d \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0646\u0635\u0651 \u0635\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0629\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646 “\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0635\u062f\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643”\u060c \u0648\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629\u064d \u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629\u064d \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629\u064d \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064d \u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u064a\u0626\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629.
\n[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

4. \u0645\u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0627<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0648 1791\u060c \u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0648\u0623\u0633\u0631\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u0633\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0633\u0627 \u0637\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u064b \u062f\u0639\u0645 \u0623\u062e\u0648\u0627\u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627\u0628\u0633\u0628\u0648\u0631\u063a\u060c \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u064f\u0642\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0623\u0646 \u064a\u0635\u0644. \u0623\u0641\u0642\u062f\u0647 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0648\u0643\u064f \u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0628\u0642\u0651\u0649 \u0645\u0646 \u0634\u0631\u0639\u064a\u0629\u064d \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0634\u0639\u0644 \u0645\u0637\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0635\u0631\u064a\u062d\u0629 \u0628\u0625\u0644\u063a\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u062c\u0645\u0644\u0629\u064b \u0648\u062a\u0641\u0635\u064a\u0644\u0627\u064b.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062e\u0627\u0645\u0633\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u2014 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0648\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 (1792\u20131794)<\/h2>\n

1. \u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649<\/h3>\n

\n\u0645\u0639 \u062a\u0635\u0627\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0648\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u062b\u0631 \u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0633\u0627 \u0648\u0628\u0631\u0648\u0633\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0628 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627\u060c \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0651\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0635\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u064a\u0644\u0631\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633 1792 \u0648\u0627\u0642\u062a\u062d\u0645\u062a\u0647\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0639\u062a\u064f\u0642\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0623\u064f\u0648\u062f\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u062c\u0646. \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1792\u060c \u0623\u0639\u0644\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0642\u064a\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u0642\u0628 \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0648\u0634 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0648\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0639\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0641\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a (20 \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1792).
\n[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

2. \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a 21 \u064a\u0646\u0627\u064a\u0631 1793\u060c \u0635\u0639\u062f \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u064a\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u062a\u0647\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0642\u064f\u0637\u0639 \u0631\u0623\u0633\u0647 \u0623\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0631. \u0623\u062b\u0627\u0631 \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0647 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629\u064b \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062f\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062c\u0645\u0651\u0639 \u0623\u063a\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0641\u064d \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0634\u0626\u0629.
\n[4]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0648\u0628\u0639\u062f \u0623\u0634\u0647\u0631\u064d \u0642\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0632\u0648\u062c\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0623\u0646\u0637\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0628\u0631 1793.\n<\/p>\n

3. \u0635\u0639\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0639\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 (\u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1793 \u2013 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1794)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0648 1793\u060c \u0623\u0637\u0627\u062d \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0628\u0642\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0639\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 (Jacobins) \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u062a\u062f\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0631\u0648\u0646\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062b\u0645 \u0623\u0633\u0651\u0633 “\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645” \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0647\u064a\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0627\u0643\u0633\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0633\u0628\u064a\u0631.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0623\u064f\u0639\u0644\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631 \u0645\u0639\u0644\u0651\u0642\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0646\u0637\u0644\u0642 “\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628” (La Terreur) \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u062f\u0627\u0645\u062a \u0623\u0634\u062f \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0644\u0647 \u0646\u062d\u0648 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0634\u0647\u0631. \u0646\u064f\u0641\u0650\u0651\u0630 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644\u0647 16,594 \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0636\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0646 \u0646\u062d\u0648 25,000 \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645\u064d \u0645\u064a\u062f\u0627\u0646\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0631\u062c\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0637\u0627\u0644 \u0645\u0634\u062a\u0628\u0647\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0631\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062a.
\n[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u0627\u062a\u0633\u0645 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0628\u0625\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629\u064d \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0633\u0628\u0648\u0642\u0629\u061b \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0634\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0639\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u062a\u0642\u0648\u064a\u0645\u0627\u064b \u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627\u064b \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u064a\u0628\u062f\u0623 \u0645\u0646 “\u0633\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649”\u060c \u0648\u0634\u0646\u0651\u0648\u0627 \u062d\u0645\u0644\u0629\u064b \u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u062b\u0627\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u0639\u0648\u064a\u0636\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0640”\u0639\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0644”\u060c \u0648\u0639\u0628\u0651\u0623\u0648\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0646\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062c\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a. \u0648\u0623\u0634\u0631\u0641 \u062f\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0648\u0646 \u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629 \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1792 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0631\u0627\u062d \u0636\u062d\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0642\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0629 1400 \u0634\u062e\u0635 \u0625\u062b\u0631 \u0633\u0642\u0648\u0637 \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0641\u0631\u062f\u0627\u0646.
\n[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

4. \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628: \u0631\u062f\u0651\u0629 \u062a\u0631\u0645\u064a\u062f\u0648\u0631<\/h3>\n

\n\u0641\u064a 28 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 1794 (9 \u062a\u0631\u0645\u064a\u062f\u0648\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0641\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0648\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a)\u060c \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0628 \u0631\u0641\u0627\u0642\u064f \u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0633\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u062e\u0634\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u064a\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0626\u0631\u0629\u061b \u0641\u0627\u0639\u062a\u064f\u0642\u0644 \u0648\u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0645\u0639 \u0639\u062f\u062f\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0642\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0647. \u0634\u0643\u0651\u0644\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u062d\u0638\u0629 \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629\u064e \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0628\u062f\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 “\u0631\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u0631\u0645\u064a\u062f\u0648\u0631” \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0639\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u062a\u0635\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633\u0627\u064b: \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631 (\u0646\u0648\u0641\u0645\u0628\u0631 1795 \u2013 \u0646\u0648\u0641\u0645\u0628\u0631 1799)<\/h2>\n

\n\u0641\u064a 22 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637\u0633 1795\u060c \u0623\u0642\u0631\u0651\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0623\u0633\u0651\u0633 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 “\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631” (Directoire)\u061b \u0647\u064a\u0626\u0629\u064b \u062a\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0630\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0643\u0648\u0651\u0646\u0629\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0645\u0633\u0629 \u0645\u062f\u064a\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u064a\u0651\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0634\u0643\u0651\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u063a\u0631\u0641\u062a\u064a\u0646 \u062a\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0639\u064a\u062a\u064a\u0646.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0647\u062f\u0641 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u062a\u062c\u0646\u0651\u0628 \u062e\u0637\u0631\u064e\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u063a\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u062f\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u062d\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u062a\u062d\u0641\u0638\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0625\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0633\u0627\u0628\u0642\u064a\u0647.
\n[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0646 \u0633\u0646\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639 \u0634\u0647\u062f\u062a \u0623\u0632\u0645\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0645\u062a\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0641\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0633\u062e\u0637\u0627\u064b \u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0639\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u064f\u062a\u0631\u062c\u064e\u0645 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631\u064d \u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a. \u0648\u0642\u062f \u0648\u0635\u0641 \u0623\u062d\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0647\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u0623\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0639\u0646 “\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064d \u0648\u0633\u0637\u064d \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0636\u0649”\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0627 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u062a\u062d\u0642\u0642.
\n[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0639\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628 18 \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0631 \u0648\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 (9 \u0646\u0648\u0641\u0645\u0628\u0631 1799)<\/h2>\n

\n\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0645\u0646 \u0646\u0648\u0641\u0645\u0628\u0631 1799 (\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0641\u0642 18 \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646\u0629 \u0648\u0641\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0648\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a)\u060c \u0646\u0641\u0651\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0631\u0627\u0644 \u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0631\u062a \u0648\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0642\u0647 \u0625\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u0633\u064a\u064a\u0627\u0633 \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0627\u064b \u0623\u0628\u064a\u0636 \u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0638\u0631\u0641 \u064a\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0623\u0637\u0627\u062d \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0651\u0642 \u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0633\u0651\u0633 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 “\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0646\u0635\u0644\u064a\u0629” \u0645\u0639 \u062a\u0639\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0642\u0646\u0635\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0623\u0648\u0651\u0644 \u064a\u062a\u0645\u062a\u0639 \u0628\u0635\u0644\u0627\u062d\u064a\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0634\u0628\u0647 \u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629.
\n[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\n\u064a\u0631\u0649 \u0623\u063a\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628 \u0634\u0643\u0651\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0628\u062f\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629\u064d \u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629\u064d \u062a\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0648\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627. \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1804\u060c \u062a\u0648\u0651\u062c \u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647 \u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627\u060c \u0645\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0648\u0631\u064e \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0631\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0627\u064b.
\n[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646\u0627\u064b: \u0623\u0628\u0631\u0632 \u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631 (1754\u20131793)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0645\u0646 1774 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u062e\u0644\u0639\u0647 1792\u061b \u0648\u064f\u0635\u0641 \u0628\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u062d\u0627\u0632\u0645\u064d \u0641\u064a \u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a\u0647 \u0648\u0645\u062a\u0630\u0628\u0630\u0628\u064c \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0635\u0644\u0627\u062d \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0639\u0646\u0647. \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0637\u0627\u063a\u064a\u0629\u064b \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0646\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0643\u064a\u060c \u0628\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646 \u0636\u0639\u0641\u0647 \u0648\u0639\u062c\u0632\u0647 \u0639\u0646 \u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u0647. \u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u064a\u0646\u0627\u064a\u0631 1793 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0645\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629\u064d \u0642\u064f\u062f\u0650\u0651\u0645\u062a \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u064f \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u062f\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0629.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\u0645\u0627\u0643\u0633\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0633\u0628\u064a\u0631 (1758\u20131794)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0645\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0631\u0627\u0633 \u0635\u0639\u062f \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u064a\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062c\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0642\u062a\u0627\u0645\u0629\u064b \u0644\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628. \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0624\u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0629\u064d \u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064d \u0635\u0627\u0631\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0641\u0627\u062f\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0633\u064a\u0644\u0629\u064c \u0636\u0631\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0644\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\u0636\u0644\u0629. \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0647\u0649 \u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0627\u0641 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u0628\u0647\u0627. \u064a\u0631\u0627\u0647 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062a\u0639\u0635\u0628\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0648\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0647 \u0622\u062e\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u062f\u0627\u0629\u064b \u0644\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0643\u062a\u0627\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629.
\n[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\u062c\u0648\u0631\u062c \u062f\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0648\u0646 (1759\u20131794)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u0631\u0632 \u0642\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0639\u064f\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u062e\u0637\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u0644\u062a\u0647\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1792. \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0627\u0631\u062a\u062f\u0651 \u0644\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u062f\u062f \u0648\u0637\u0627\u0644\u0628 \u0628\u0625\u064a\u0642\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628\u060c \u0641\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u062a\u0647 \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0633\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0628\u0625\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0644 1794.
\n[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0623\u0646\u0637\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u062a (1755\u20131793)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0635\u0644\u064d \u0646\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u064a\u064d\u0651 \u0648\u0632\u0648\u062c\u0629 \u0644\u0648\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062f\u0633 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u061b \u063a\u062f\u062a \u0631\u0645\u0632\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u064a\u0651\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0635\u0648\u0631\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0651\u0636\u062a \u0644\u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u0648\u064a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0639\u0627\u0626\u064a. \u0623\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0641\u064a 16 \u0623\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0628\u0631 1793 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0645\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629\u064d \u0648\u064f\u062c\u0651\u0647\u062a \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u0647\u0645\u064c \u0645\u062a\u0639\u062f\u062f\u0629.\n<\/p>\n

\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0648\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0631\u062a (1769\u20131821)<\/h3>\n

\n\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0631\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u0631\u0633\u064a\u0643\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0635\u0639\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0633\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a\u064d \u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629\u064d \u0628\u0627\u0647\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0645\u0635\u0631\u060c \u0644\u064a\u064f\u0637\u064a\u062d \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0631\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1799 \u0648\u064a\u062a\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629. \u062d\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0626 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062d\u0646\u0629 (1803\u20131815)\u060c \u0644\u0643\u0646\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0622\u0646 \u0630\u0627\u062a\u0647 \u0623\u0639\u0627\u062f \u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u0628\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0647 \u0648\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0647\u0649 \u0645\u0644\u0643\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0644\u0642\u0628 “\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631”.
\n[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639\u0627\u064b: \u0646\u062a\u0627\u0626\u062c \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0622\u062b\u0627\u0631\u0647\u0627<\/h2>\n

1. \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0642\u0636\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0642\u0636\u0627\u0621\u064b \u0645\u0628\u0631\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0631\u0633\u062a \u0645\u0628\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u0627\u064b \u0631\u0627\u0633\u062e\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627. \u0623\u0644\u063a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0645\u062a\u064a\u0627\u0632\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0633\u0627\u0648\u062a \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0635\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0646\u064a\u0633\u0629 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629.
\n[18]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0643\u0645\u0627 \u0648\u0636\u0639\u062a \u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0628\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0623\u0631\u0633\u062a \u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0625\u062f\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062d\u0644\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u062a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u064a.\n<\/p>\n

2. \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u0623\u0634\u0639\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u062a\u064a\u0644\u064e \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0629\u064d \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u0631\u064a\u0629\u061b \u0641\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0623\u062b\u0651\u0631\u062a \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a\u064c \u0644\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629\u064c \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0644\u0647\u0628\u062a \u0645\u062e\u064a\u0651\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0633\u0647\u0645\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0646\u062d\u0633\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u062a\u062f\u0631\u064a\u062c\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629.
\n[1]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0623\u0637\u0644\u0642\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 (1792\u20131799) \u062b\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u064a\u0629 (1803\u20131815) \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0639\u0627\u062f\u062a \u0631\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644.
\n[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

3. \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a<\/h3>\n

\n\u064a\u064f\u0639\u062f\u0651 “\u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0637\u0646” (1789) \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0631\u0633\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062b\u0627\u0626\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u061b \u0625\u0630 \u0623\u062b\u0651\u0631 \u062a\u0623\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0627\u0644\u063a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0635\u064a\u0627\u063a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a \u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0645\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1948\u060c \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645.
\n[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n

4. \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u0638\u0644\u0645: \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u062a\u0635\u062f\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0645\u0629<\/h3>\n

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\n[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u0639\u0627\u0634\u0631\u0627\u064b: \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0645\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0641\u0633\u064a\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n

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\n[8]<\/a><\/sup>
\n\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u060c \u062a\u064f\u0634\u0643\u0651\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0631\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0632\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0623\u0644\u0641\u0631\u064a\u062f \u0643\u0648\u0628\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0641\u0633\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u064a\u060c \u0645\u0624\u0643\u062f\u0629\u064b \u0623\u0646 \u0642\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0645 \u062a\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0631\u0623\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0623\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0638\u0641\u064a\u0646.\n<\/p>\n

\n\u0623\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0635\u0639\u064a\u062f \u062a\u0642\u064a\u064a\u0645 \u0625\u0631\u062b \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0641\u062b\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u064a\u0631\u0627\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646\u0628\u0639\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u062b\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u064a\u0631\u0649 \u0641\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u062c\u0630\u0648\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u064a \u0648\u062a\u0623\u0644\u064a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u0633\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u062f. \u0648\u0642\u062f \u0648\u0635\u0641 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0631\u062e\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0627 \u062c\u0631\u0649 \u0641\u064a “\u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u0647\u0627\u0628” \u0628\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u0646\u0645\u0648\u0630\u062c\u064c \u0645\u0628\u0643\u0631\u064c \u0644\u0644\u0625\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u0645\u0646\u0647\u062c\u0629.
\n[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

<\/p>\n

\n

\u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645\u0629<\/h2>\n

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\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0633\u0642\u0637\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0633\u0633\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u0647\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2542,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[156,181,182],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2536","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-al-tarikh","category-al-thawraat-wal-intifadat","category-al-thawra-al-faransiya"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2536","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2536"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2536\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2550,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2536\/revisions\/2550"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2542"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2536"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2536"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cosmalore.com\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2536"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}